Episode 14: General Benedict Arnold and the Battle of Saratoga

Episode 14: Just Enough History American series

Despite his lingering leg wound, received trying to storm the Canadian citadel city of Quebec almost a year earlier, for the second time in three weeks, Major General Benedict Arnold led part of the Continental Army into battle. In desperation, British General John Burgoyne, had made one last attempt to dislodge the Americans from Saratoga, a sleepy village in upstate New York situated along the pivotal Hudson River, which had Burgoyne succeeded would have given the British control of the mighty Hudson and likely led to the bifurcation of the infant American nation. Heedless of his own personal safety, General Arnold charged directly at the British regulars. If the Redcoats did not kill him in battle, it was likely that Arnold would be court-martialed as he had directly disobeyed his senior officer, General Horatio Gates, who had ordered the impetuous general to remain in his tent as the battle raged.

But Arnold understood how weak and desperate his opponent was. After months on the march from British-controlled Canada through the wilderness of northern New York state where the men had to hack trails by hand through the dense forests, General Burgoyne had lost thousands of men to small, ancillary skirmishes, disease and desertion. Now he faced a choice: attack the Americans standing in his way at Saratoga and accomplish his goal of securing the Hudson River or make a dash back to Canada with what remained of “Gentleman Johnny’s” British army with the Americans harassing him every step of the way.

The map above indicates American and British troop movements during the summer and fall months of the Campaign of 1777. Courtesy National Park Service

Shouting “victory or death” (the password used by General George Washington on his attack at the Trenton garrison that had become a Patriot rallying cry) Arnold rushed out of the extensive American defensive works General Gates had ordered him to stay behind and aggressively headed straight for the two British redoubts. Even after being shot in the same leg that had been wounded in Quebec, and with his horse falling and pinning him to the ground, General Arnold exhorted his men to press on. The Americans charged and seized the redoubts, the victory and the day.

While Arnold had to be carried off the battlefield and would spend the next three months confined to a bed with a fracture box immobilizing his wounded leg, the entire British Army under General John Burgoyne, would surrender within the next week. Despite directly disobeying the orders of his senior commander, Benedict Arnold had saved the day at Saratoga and likely the “Glorious Cause” of American freedom by preventing the British seizure of the Hudson River Valley and the severing of New England from the rest of the United Colonies. The victory would also inspire the French to step out of the shadows, where they had been clandestinely assisting the American rebels, and onto the American battlefields seeking revenge on their hated British adversaries.

Background:

As General George Washington sat in Continental Army winter quarters in Morristown, New Jersey situated between New York City and the American capital of Philadelphia, he took stock of the momentous year of 1776. America had officially declared itself independent of the British Empire, the hated Redcoats had been forced to evacuate Boston after an 11-month siege, and there had been a moment in 1776 when the American Northern Army had seemed poised to conquer Canada, with Montreal in Patriot hands and with the great citadel city of Quebec under siege for five months by a small, raucous band of Americans. However, just as the political leaders in Philadelphia, men like Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, had finally convinced enough delegates to the Second Continental Congress to declare independence in July 1776, what had seemed like such a promising start for the infant nation quickly faltered.

Determined to hold onto its 13 rebellious colonies in America, lest Britain’s other 13 “New World” colonies caught the revolutionary spirit, the mighty British Empire struck back; landing 32,000 soldiers, sailors and hired mercenaries at the port of New York City which General George Washington and the Continental Army stood little chance of defending. Forced to retreat after losing multiple battles, Washington led what remained of the Continental Army south through New Jersey with part of the British Army chasing them. While Washington retreated, the important port of Newport, Rhode Island also fell to the Royal Navy and thousands of New Jerseyans and New Yorkers accepted the latest British peace offering by swearing allegiance to King George III in return for a general pardon. In December 1776 the quest for independence was perilously close to failing.

To reinvigorate his men, and to try and keep them from either deserting or not re-enlisting when their commitments expired, Washington crossed the Delaware and led a daring attack on Christmas night, 1776 on a British garrison in Trenton, New Jersey. But despite the victory at Trenton, and a smaller one a week later at the college town of Princeton, the “Glorious Cause” of American freedom was still very much in doubt.

Along with the failures at New York City and Newport, Rhode Island, the once promising invasion of Canada had fallen apart due to a lack of resources, men and smallpox and the entire American Northern Army had been chased out of Canada with Redcoats pursuing it to Lake Champlain where only General Benedict Arnold’s brashness had saved the day. Arnold’s hastily assembled fleet on Lake Champlain in late autumn had caused just enough damage to the British that they turned around in October 1776 to winter quarters in Canada. Everyone knew when the ice thawed in spring 1777 that another British force would emerge from Canada and plunge straight into New York with the goal of reaching the Hudson River and likely meeting up with a force of Redcoats sent inland up the Hudson from British-controlled New York City.

Battle of Valcour Island: Benedict Arnold’s stand on Lake Champlain forced the British to return to Canada for winter quarters 1776. Public Domain.

Washington also knew that it would be difficult for the Continental Army to protect the American capital of Philadelphia, should British General William Howe choose to attack it. But Howe, safely ensconced in New York City, home to the largest percentage of Loyalist Americans and with secure access to the seas for the Royal Navy as well as the vast agricultural resources of Long Island, did not seem in a rush to go anywhere as the New England winter gave way to spring. As the weather warmed, General Washington could do little but wait in Morristown to see what the British intended for 1777.

Luckily for Washington and the American cause of freedom, British policy during the entire war was often inept and confused. Due to the distance, roughly 3,000 miles, from London to the 13 United Colonies, British generals were by necessity given much discretion. While King George III remained firmly committed to bringing his rebellious colonies back to the fold, his government struggled to find the resources necessary to bring the colonies to heel. There simply were not enough ships to transport the soldiers, tents, weapons, food, and ammunition the British Army required. Shortages of everything would dog the British Army almost as much as the Continentals.

London had counted on thousands of Loyalists flocking to his royal majesty’s army but in most colonies, few Loyalists were willing to risk their businesses, homes and possibly lives by declaring loyalty to Britain without the British Army remaining there to protect them from the vicious retaliations meted out by American rebels. Indeed, Loyalist Americans were prevented from traveling, owning newspapers or operating taverns or ferries, and were subjected to increased taxation, harassment, interrogations and attacks like tarring and feathering or branding. Despite the approximately 100 Loyalist militia regiments in which 50,000 Americans would fight, London had expected and was counting on thousands more.

Loyalists were subjected to recriminations like tarring and feathering or additional taxation. Public Domain

It also did not help the British cause that the generals charged with carrying out London’s policies often detested one another and competed for military and shipping resources as well as for London’s approbation. Generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne pursued policies in whatever way seemed best to them often without coordinating with their fellow British officers.

Thus, when General John Burgoyne arrived back in Quebec in May 1777 with orders to march his 8,000 British soldiers and German mercenaries along with roughly 400 allied Native warriors, primarily from the Iroquois Nations, and several hundred Canadians, south to Albany, New York, General Burgoyne set out into the wilderness believing his brother generals would support his army’s invasion. London had indeed ordered a three-prong assault on New York with the goal of severing New England from the rest of the United Colonies by controlling the entirety of the Hudson River Valley. John Burgoyne, the playwright, actor, politician and soldier, known affectionately as “Gentleman Johnny,” due to the respectful way he treated his soldiers, or “General Swagger,” because of his oftentimes haughty manners, set out in June 1777 with roughly 9,000 men and an additional 2,000 women, children and camp followers expecting to meet his fellow generals and their other two British forces at Albany, New York.

General John Burgoyne by Josua Reynolds. Public Domain

As far as Gen. Burgoyne knew, the other two prongs were already in motion as his slow-moving train slogged its way south, first via Lake Champlain where Forts Ticonderoga, Anne and Edward, were easily taken back into British custody (the American generals charged with protecting Ticonderoga would both be court-martialed for “neglect of duty” for abandoning the pivotal post). However, after traversing picturesque Lake Champlain, Burgoyne’s route turned perilous as he had to blaze a trail through the dense forests between the Mohawk and Hudson Rivers. As resources ran low, men became sick and began to desert. Burgoyne also got distracted from his main goal of reaching Albany and sent detachments of men seeking additional supplies to Bennington, in what would later become Vermont, who were ambushed by waiting American militia. Burgoyne lost almost 1,000 men captured or killed as well as losing control of his supply lines to Canada, which were under constant attack by Americans unwilling to confront Burgoyne’s army directly but perfectly content to use guerrilla tactics and their local knowledge of the woods and lakes to harass the British rear.

While Burgoyne bogged down in the woods, the other two prongs of the British invasion faltered as well. The second prong was led by British Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger, tasked with securing a western route through New York via the Mohawk River Valley. Accompanying St. Leger were almost 1,000 Native allied Warriors primarily from the Seneca and Mohawk Nations, part of the British strategy of arming and deploying Native allies who understood that an American victory would be detrimental to their future interests.

Unbeknownst to Burgoyne who was losing men by the day in the woods, St. Leger himself got distracted from the rendezvous goal of Albany in a foolish siege of Fort Stanwix, a remote outpost in western New York which he could have easily bypassed. At the Battle of Oriskany close to Stanwix, Loyalist Americans and their Native allied Warriors ambushed a small American force en route to resupply the fort. The bloody British victory at Oriskany led St. Leger to believe that the fort would quickly fall and he took up siege positions around the post instead of marching directly toward his rendezvous with Burgoyne.

News of the British siege of Stanwix reached the Continental Army’s Northern Army headquarters at Saratoga where preparations were already underway for Burgoyne’s arrival, and General Benedict Arnold volunteered to head west to assist his comrades. Along the way, Arnold used a spy to pass along disinformation that he and 3,000 Continental regulars were fast-marching their way to Ft. Stanwix to rescue the isolated post. The British had learned not to underestimate the brash American general and the mere specter of Gen. Benedict Arnold caused St. Leger to call off the 19-day siege and flee. (Arnold’s actual force numbered roughly 700 Continentals). St. Leger’s diversion at Fort Stanwix would mean that his forces would never meet up with Burgoyne.

The third prong of the British invasion plan of 1777 had been for General Willam Howe, recently knighted after his successful capture of New York City the year prior, to advance up the Hudson River to meet both Burgoyne and St. Leger at Albany. However, Howe’s orders from London had given the general latitude to decide between two tracts; support Burgoyne’s invasion or move to seize the American capital of Philadelphia. Gen. Howe decided that capturing Philadelphia could lead to a decisive battle and end the war and in August he set sail from New York City not up the Hudson to relieve Burgoyne but to the Chesapeake to attack Philadelphia.

Gen. William Howe. Commander of all British forces in America. His choice to attack Philadelphia instead of heading up the Hudson to meet Gen. Burgoyne was just one of many time Britain’s generals undermined each other. Public Domain.

Determined to protect the seat of American government, Washington gave battle at Brandywine Creek, 25 miles southwest of Philadelphia in September 1777. Yet again the Continental Army was bested by the Redcoats who crossed the Brandywine upstream and threatened to flank the entire Continental Army. Thanks to a ferocious rear-guard action fought by Rhode Island General Nathaneal Greene, one of Washington’s most trusted commanders, the Americans retreated and lived to fight another day. On September 26^th 1777 General Howe arrived in Philadelphia and took the American capital uncontested. The Second Continental Congress had fled in advance of the Redcoats into the interior of Pennsylvania, first to Lancaster and then ultimately to York.

Washington and Marquis de Lafayette, one of his most trusted generals. Battle of Brandywine. Public Domain

General Burgoyne, however, knew none of this. As supplies dwindled and relations worsened among his Native Nation warriors, Canadian auxiliaries, German mercenaries and British regulars, Burgoyne limped on towards his directive of Albany. Standing in his way, was the sleepy village of Saratoga perched on the heights of the western side of the mighty Hudson River. The Northern Army, now under the command of General Horatio Gates, who had replaced the rich, haughty, plantation-magnate General Philip Schuyler whose lackluster defense of Fort Ticonderoga had led to his court martial, had been fortifying the heights overlooking the river for weeks.

British-born and British-Army trained Gates was a cautious general and he believed that the Americans best chance at victory was to build strong fortifications and await the invading British. While the Americans scrambled to fortify Bemis Heights in Saratoga ahead of the British arrival, General Gates quarreled with his second in command, General Benedict Arnold, recently returned from his successful disinformation campaign at Fort Stanwix. Gates, who had absolutely despised his predecessor, Gen. Schuyler, insisted that Arnold fire his entire general staff because most of those officers had earlier served under Schuyler. Arnold’s refusal to fire his entire staff combined with Arnold’s preference for an offensive attack on Burgoyne, led to a further deterioration of relations between the two generals.

General Horatio Gates. Painted by Gilbert Stuart Public Domain

As Burgoyne limped his way into Saratoga, Arnold led a group of men out to scout the British positions on September 19^th and ended up in a general engagement with the Redcoats. Still safely behind the fortifications on Bemis Heights, Gates refused Arnold’s pleas for reinforcements that would have allowed Arnold and his men to fully engage the British. The battle was fierce but the British eventually managed to push the Americans back behind their fortifications. Like the Battle of Bunker Hill, this was a costly British victory with the Redcoats absorbing almost double the casualties of the Americans. While his march to Albany had been stopped, Burgoyne dug in around Saratoga to await the reinforcements from Howe and St. Leger he still believed were coming.

Back behind the American fortifications, Arnold chafed under his desire to burst out and attack the weakened Redcoats. As he peppered Gates relentlessly for permission to go on the offensive, the relationship between Gates and Arnold collapsed completely. Declaring September 19th to be a great victory, despite the British taking the field, Gates wrote triumphantly to Congress, now meeting in York, and conveniently forgot to mention Arnold’s pivotal role in the “victory.” Gates also removed Captain Daniel Morgan’s corps of sharpshooters from Arnold’s command who were considered one of the best regiments in the Continental Army and many of whom had been with Arnold since his invasion of Canada. As Arnold protested these petty measures in the face of the British threat, General Gates relieved Arnold of command and replaced him with the former militia general turned Major General Benjamin Lincoln, and directly ordered Arnold to remain behind the fortifications and NOT to engage the enemy.

After almost a month of awaiting reinforcements that unbeknownst to Burgoyne were currently relaxing in Philadelphia or been delayed by the siege of Stanwix and a flood of American loyalists that had never materialized, Gen. Burgoyne had to make a decision as his supplies dwindled; attack the Americans at Saratoga or turn in defeat and disgrace and head back to Canada. On October 7, 1777 Burgoyne rolled the dice and General Benedict Arnold, despite direct orders to stay in his tent, rode out to meet the Redcoats accompanied by most of the Northern Army.

Inspired by their commander, the Americans breached the British redoubts even after Arnold fell in battle, receiving yet another wound in the same leg injured in Quebec. “Rush on my brave boys, rush on,” Arnold was quoted as yelling as he lay helplessly on the battlefield pinned underneath his beloved, dead horse. Rush on the Americans did and they stormed both redoubts and ended the British goal of securing the Hudson River. While Arnold would have to be carried off the field of battle on a stretcher and he would spend the next three months in a hospital confined to a bed with a fracture box immobilizing his leg, he would not see the surrender of General Burgoyne’s entire army which was eventually surrounded by General Gates, who finally emerged from behind his fortifications, a week later.

Americans were agog with the victory at Saratoga. Couples up and down the Atlantic Seaboard danced to a new move, “The Burgoyne Surrender.” The Continental Congress forged a special medal for General Gates depicting him as the hero of Saratoga. All while the real reason the Americans emerged victorious in the woods of central New York, Benedict Arnold, lay fuming in his hospital bed. Major General Arnold had led not one, but two, frontal charges against a better armed and -trained British Army and won, even after being shot in the leg.

King Louis XVI. Having sent French agents to all parts of the British Empire looking for weak points, the French king decided upon assisting the Americans rebelling against his arch-enemy.

But even more important than General Arnold’s wounded pride, was the French decision made after the shocking surrender of an entire British Army, to publicly support American independence. While French King Louis XVI was leery of supporting a rebellion against a fellow monarch, his hatred of the British proved to be greater than his dislike of republicanism and within six months of Burgoyne’s surrender in the backwoods of New York, America’s most famous diplomat, Benjamin Franklin, would help secure a treaty of cooperation and amity with the French Empire. Benedict Arnold had saved the day yet again. Had Arnold not gone on to betray the American cause and defect to the British, his heroism at Saratoga would have undoubtedly enshrined him in the pantheon of great American military leaders. Today Arnold’s bravery is marked by the so-called, “boot monument” a statue of a solitary empty soldier’s boot with no name engraved. It is a tribute as enigmatic as the man it honors.